The Catholic Roots of 1819

The seeds of Catholicism were planted in the Sandwich Islands through naval diplomacy and personal conversion well before a formal mission was established. In 1819, during the final year of King Kamehameha I’s life and the dawn of Kamehameha II’s reign, the French corvette Uranie arrived in the islands. Onboard this vessel, high-ranking Hawaiian officials Prime Minister Kalaimoku and Governor Boki of Oahu requested and received Catholic baptism from Rev. Abbé Quelin. This event established a high-level precedent for the faith, ensuring that the first Christian influence on the kingdom’s leadership was Catholic and French-sponsored.

The 1826 Expedition and Mission Planting

Motivated by his baptism and a desire to establish the faith locally, Governor Boki tasked a Frenchman named John Rives with recruiting priests from Europe. In response, Pope Leo XII appointed Rev. Alexis Bachelot as Apostolic Prefect to the Sandwich Islands. On July 7, 1827, Father Bachelot arrived in Honolulu aboard the ship Comet, accompanied by Father Short and Father Armand. Governor Boki welcomed the missionaries warmly, granting them land and houses to reside in, which allowed Bachelot to celebrate the first Catholic Mass on Hawaiian soil on July 13, 1827.

Immediate Political Resistance

Despite the warm welcome from Governor Boki, the mission arrived in a climate of immediate suspicion from the central government. By the time the Catholics landed, American Protestant missionaries had already established a firm foothold, having arrived in 1820. These advisors wielded significant influence over the Hawaiian chiefs and viewed the Catholics as dangerous “idol-worshippers” and political rivals. Consequently, even as Boki offered protection, the central authorities—under the sway of Methodist teaching—initially ordered the priests to return to their ship and leave the kingdom immediately.

The Gathering Storm (1828)

By 1828, the Catholic mission existed in a precarious legal gray area, operating under Boki’s protection while the broader government moved toward suppression. In April 1828, Protestant leaders including Hiram Bingham and Levi Chamberlain were appointed as a committee to investigate the “plans and operations of the Jesuits,” initiating a formal campaign to bring the Catholic mission into odium with the chiefs. This period marked the end of peaceful growth, as the religious friction intensified and the government began to lay the groundwork for the systematic persecution and eventual banishment of the Catholic clergy.

The Power Shift and the Start of Suppression

The era of open persecution began in December 1829 following the disappearance of Governor Boki at sea. As the primary protector of the Catholic mission, his absence allowed power to shift decisively to Queen Kaʻahumanu and later the Governess Kīnaʻu, both of whom were staunch Protestant converts guided by American missionary advisors. They viewed Catholicism as a form of “image worship” that threatened the social order by echoing the recently abolished kapu system. Consequently, the government initiated a campaign to purge the “Papal” influence, beginning with orders to native Hawaiians to cease attending Mass and culminating in the first acts of physical violence against converts.

The “Persecution” of Native Hawaiians

Native Hawaiians who remained steadfast in their Catholic faith faced systemic and brutal punishments. Among the first recorded victims in January 1830 were Luika Kaumaka, Valeriano Hinapapa, and Kimeone Pale, who were beaten or tortured for refusing to renounce their religion. Luika Kaumaka was singled out for particular cruelty; she was taken to Maui and held without food for seven days, then forced into nine weeks of menial servitude. Other early victims included a group of men sentenced to reef labor—Pacome Kaihumua, Ikanakio Kamaka, Kiipueoe, Mamaua Kamalolo, and Malahu—and women sentenced to mat making, including Amelia Maloikon, Kekela Miakaiehua, Okilia Pahana, and Alukia Kaukalu.

The Penal Servitude of the Waikiki Coral Wall

The persecution evolved into a system of penal labor where converts were treated as common criminals. Numerous Catholics were sentenced to the “coral wall” project at Waikiki, where they were forced to harvest heavy coral blocks from the surf and carry them inland under the harsh sun. Anolo Riko (Kihawahine), noted for his gentle disposition, was heavily ironed in the Fort for three months before serving 18 months of stone-carrying. He was joined by Itakelio Luakini and Pelpe Kanmoku, who also served 18-month sentences. The grueling nature of this work was documented by officers of the U.S.S. Potomac, who witnessed a mother carrying an infant on her back while bearing large stones as punishment for her faith.

Casualties of Abuse and Deprivation

While mass executions were not used, the conditions of imprisonment and labor resulted in several deaths that contemporaries viewed as martyrdoms. Alokia Keluhoonani died shortly after her release from hard labor, her health having been broken by exhaustion and deprivation. Another tragic casualty was an unnamed infant, the child of a woman forced to weave mats while ill; the child died shortly after their release from the strain of the mother’s captivity. Later in the period, a man named Luahina died on September 15, 1839, while being rounded up with dozens of others. Additionally, six unnamed native women suffered through months of mat-weaving imprisonment, with one succumbing to illness alongside her child.

The Exile of the Missionaries

The persecution reached its zenith with the forcible removal of the European clergy. On December 24, 1831, Fathers Alexis Bachelot and Patrick Short were seized, placed on the brig Waverly, and abandoned on the barren coast of California near San Pedro. Though they survived this exile, the physical and mental toll was immense. When they attempted to return in 1837 aboard the Clementine, they were again barred and held in a state of naval arrest. The era concluded with the tragic death of Father Alexis Bachelot at sea on December 3, 1837, his health finally failing after years of travel, imprisonment, and what his supporters termed “merciless cruelty” at the hands of the Hawaiian authorities.

The Stalwarts: Luika Kaumaka and Valeriano Hinapapa

The persecution often began with individual tests of will against prominent native leaders. Luika Kaumaka, a native woman baptized in California, became a primary target for Queen Kaʻahumanu. She was forcibly taken to Maui and subjected to a seven-day starvation period followed by nine weeks of grueling menial servitude designed to break her spirit; however, she remained steadfast. Similarly, Valeriano Hinapapa was summoned before an inquisitorial tribunal and brutally beaten with sticks for his refusal to renounce Catholicism. His public punishment served as a warning to other converts, yet he remained a devout leader within the community.

The Waikiki Coral Wall Detail

The most widespread form of punishment was penal servitude at the Waikiki coral wall, where converts were treated as state slaves. Anolo Riko (Kihawahine), a man described as being of exemplary conduct, was seized and held in heavy irons at the Honolulu Fort for three months before being sentenced to eighteen months of carrying massive coral stones. He labored alongside Itakelio Luakini and Pelpe Kanmoku, both of whom served the same eighteen-month sentence under the blistering sun with minimal food. This detail was designed to be physically exhaustive, utilizing the very material—coral—that the government associated with the “idolatry” they sought to eradicate.

Chained Pairings: Kimeone Pale and Maria Ana Kamakaia

In an effort to humiliate and break the resolve of families, the authorities often chained couples together for public labor. Kimeone (Simeone) Pale was famously dragged from the altar while praying during a raid on the mission. He and his wife, Maria Ana Kamakaia, were chained together and forced into public hard labor, which included cutting jagged coral on the reef and carrying heavy wood. This “chained pairing” was a common tactic recorded in the historical woodcuts of the era, intended to ensure that neither spouse could find respite while the other suffered.

The Casualties: Alokia Keluhoonani and Luahina

While many survived the labor, several converts are remembered as “near-martyrs” due to the physical toll of their imprisonment. Alokia Keluhoonani was a native convert condemned to the reef labor and the Waikiki wall; she died shortly after being released, her death attributed directly to illness and exhaustion exacerbated by the “merciless cruelty” of her treatment. Another man, Luahina, died on September 15, 1839, while being rounded up during a mass arrest of 67 natives. His death occurred in transit, a victim of the physical stress of being hunted for his religious practice.

The Suffering of Women and Children

The records of the U.S. Frigate Potomac and Father Bachelot’s journals highlight the specific cruelty toward women and infants. Juliana Makuwahine was publicly humiliated and lashed to a tree on June 25, 1839, for her refusal to recant. Furthermore, an unnamed woman with an infant was observed carrying heavy stones for the Waikiki wall with her child strapped to her back. Tragically, another unnamed native woman, who was already ill during her imprisonment for weaving mats, died with her infant shortly after their release. These deaths illustrate that the persecution was not merely political, but a total social assault on the Catholic native population.

Additional Detail of Those Persecuted

Based on primary records such as the Supplement to the Sandwich Islands Mirror and Father Alexis Bachelot’s journals, the “Persecution” saw a systematic attempt to dismantle the native Catholic community through grueling penal labor and physical degradation. Anolo Riko (Kihawahine) and Itakelio Luakini were emblematic of this struggle; both were condemned to eighteen months of hard labor carrying massive stones to build the great coral wall at Waikiki. Anolo Riko, noted for his gentle disposition, was first held in heavy irons at the Honolulu Fort for three months before being sent to the wall. This work was intentionally designed to be backbreaking, forcing the converts to handle jagged coral stone under a blistering sun with little to no sustenance, treating their religious devotion as a criminal offense against the state.

The persecution also targeted the domestic bonds of the converts, often using public humiliation and family separation as a tool of coercion. Kimeone (Simeone) Pale and his wife Maria Ana Kamakaia were famously chained together in pairs, forced to perform public labor such as cutting stone on the reef and scavenging for wood under constant surveillance. This practice was intended to break their collective resolve, yet they remained steadfast. Other women, such as Juliana Makuwahine, suffered even more direct physical assault; she was lashed to a tree on June 25, 1839, a scene later immortalized in 1840 woodcuts that served as a visual indictment of the government’s “inquisitorial” tactics.

The ultimate sacrifice was paid by those whose bodies failed under the weight of state-sanctioned abuse and the deprivation of basic needs. Alokia Keluhoonani is remembered as a martyr of this era; she was subjected to reef labor and building the Waikiki wall, only to die from illness and exhaustion shortly after her release. Another tragic casualty was Luahina, who died on September 15, 1839, during a mass round-up of 67 native Catholics. Even more harrowing were the deaths of children; records from the U.S. Frigate Potomac and missionary letters describe an unnamed woman forced to weave mats while ill, whose infant died shortly after they were liberated, and a mother seen carrying large stones for the wall while her nursing child was strapped to her back, highlighting a level of “merciless cruelty” that eventually drew global condemnation.

The Decree of Expulsion

By April 1831, the tension between the Hawaiian monarchy and the Catholic mission reached a breaking point. Under the regency of Queen Kaʻahumanu and the influence of Protestant advisors, Fathers Alexis Bachelot and Patrick Short were summoned before the principal chiefs at a fort in Honolulu. In a formal conference, they were handed a letter from the King declaring that their presence was no longer welcome and that they must leave the islands immediately under threat of property confiscation and imprisonment. Despite Father Bachelot’s attempts to defend his mission as purely spiritual and analogous to the reverence Hawaiians showed their own deceased monarchs, the government remained firm in its resolve to eliminate what they viewed as a “hostile” foreign influence.

Forcible Removal on Christmas Eve

The final act of banishment occurred on December 24, 1831. While the missionaries celebrated what they believed would be their last Mass on Oahu, government officers arrived to enforce the King’s order. Bachelot and Short were refused any opportunity to leave voluntarily on a vessel of their choice; instead, they were forcibly escorted to the shore through streets lined with both sympathetic converts and curious spectators. The chiefs had engaged the brig Waverly, a small and somewhat rickety vessel, to carry the priests into exile. In an act of documented protest, the priests requested the British and American consuls to certify that their expulsion was based solely on their status as Catholic missionaries, ensuring the injustice would be recorded for the world to see.

The Journey to California

The voyage across the Pacific was marked by uncertainty and fear. The captain of the Waverly, an Englishman who had taken the commission despite its controversial nature, initially remained vague about the vessel’s destination. Rumors circulated among the crew that the priests might be abandoned on the desert island of Santa Cruz or Santa Catalina, which were then used as convict colonies or frequented by otter hunters. However, as the ship’s course became clear, Bachelot was relieved to find they were heading toward the coast of California. Despite the circumstances of their arrival, the captain personally expressed regret for the expulsion and criticized the Protestant ministers back in Hawaii for instigating the move.

Abandonment at San Pedro

On January 21, 1832, the Waverly reached a desolate and barren stretch of the California coast near San Pedro. The priests were treated as prisoners and were not allowed to seek official landing permission. Instead, they were unceremoniously set ashore with their trunks in a remote area, far from any significant settlement. They spent their first nights in exile sleeping on their luggage near an uninhabited house, exposed to cold winds and the threat of wild animals like bears and snakes. They were sustained only by the charity of a local farmer and his herdsmen, who provided them with vital provisions like milk, water, and corn tortillas while they awaited word from the interior missions.

Refuge at St. Gabriel

The exile eventually turned from a moment of abandonment into a new chapter of ministry. On January 24, the priests received a letter from the clergy at the Mission of St. Gabriel, who had been notified of their plight and arranged for their transportation. They arrived at the mission to the sound of ringing bells and a warm welcome from the local community. While Father Short was eventually tasked with leading a local college, Father Bachelot took responsibility for over 2,000 souls in a district spanning thirty leagues. Though safe in California, Bachelot remained devoted to his “lost” flock in Hawaii, spending the next five years corresponding with converts and waiting for a political opening that would allow for his return.

The return and eventual death of Father Alexis Bachelot marked the climax of the religious and constitutional struggle in the Hawaiian Kingdom, transforming a localized mission conflict into an international diplomatic crisis.

The Return on the Clementine

In April 1837, after five years of exile in California, Fathers Alexis Bachelot and Patrick Short returned to Honolulu aboard the English brig Clementine. They believed that recent treaties and a shifting political landscape might finally allow them to resume their ministry. However, their arrival was met with immediate hostility. The Governor of Oahu, acting on the orders of the monarchy, prevented the priests from formally disembarking and ordered them back to the ship. This act sparked the “Clementine Affair,” as the owner of the vessel, Jules Dudoit, refused to take them back, arguing that the forced re-embarkation of passengers violated British maritime law and his rights as a merchant.

The Proclamation of Hostility

King Kamehameha III, facing intense pressure from American Protestant advisors who viewed the “Papal mission” as a threat to national unity, issued a stern proclamation on April 29, 1837. He declared the Catholic mission to be “hostile to the kingdom” and reiterated the ban on their presence. The government argued that as a sovereign nation, Hawaii had the right to exclude any foreign influence it deemed disruptive to social order, citing the legal theories of Vattel. This stance created a legal deadlock: the priests were technically on Hawaiian soil but remained under a form of state-sanctioned naval arrest, confined to the Clementine while it sat in the harbor.

Naval Intervention

The crisis escalated in July 1837 when British and French naval forces arrived to defend their subjects. Captain Edward Belcher of the H.B.M. ship Sulphur and Captain Du Petit Thouars of the French frigate La Venus demanded the immediate release of the priests. In a show of “gunboat diplomacy,” the naval commanders sent a small force of marines to board the Clementine, escorting the priests safely to shore amidst the cheers of their supporters. While the King was forced to sign temporary treaties guaranteeing that the priests could reside on land until they found passage elsewhere, he refused to grant them the right to teach, maintaining the kingdom’s official anti-Catholic policy.

The Final Expulsion

Despite the protection of the naval commanders, the Hawaiian authorities remained resolute in their goal of permanent expulsion. In late 1837, the government intensified its efforts to remove the “disturbers” of the peace. Bachelot, whose health was rapidly deteriorating due to the stresses of his long exile and the recent confinement in the harbor, was forced to depart once more. On November 23, 1837, he and Father Maigret were placed on the schooner Honolulu, a vessel poorly equipped for a long Pacific voyage. They were destined for the Gambier Islands, but for Bachelot, the journey would prove too great a burden for his weakened constitution.

The Death of Bachelot

Weakened by years of travel, mistreatment, and the emotional toll of being separated from his flock, Alexis Bachelot’s health failed completely during the voyage. On December 3, 1837, while the schooner was near Ascension Island (Pohnpei), the Apostolic Prefect passed away. His companion, Father Maigret, performed the last rites at sea. Bachelot’s death was immediately framed by Catholics and international observers as a “near-martyrdom.” He was interred on Ascension Island, but the news of his death quickly traveled back to Europe and America, fueling global outrage and providing the moral justification for more aggressive intervention against the Hawaiian government.

The Legal and Moral Aftermath

The death of Bachelot served as a turning point in Hawaiian history. It shifted the international perception of the conflict from a theological dispute between missions to a human rights crisis involving the “merciless cruelty” of a sovereign power against French subjects. The King attempt to institutionalize the persecution through the “Ordinance Rejecting the Catholic Religion” on December 18, 1837, only served to further isolate Hawaii diplomatically. This era of stubborn resistance by the monarchy would directly lead to the Laplace Intervention of 1839, where the threat of total war would finally force the kingdom to embrace the principles of religious pluralism.

Chapter 4: Gunboat Diplomacy—The Laplace Intervention (1839)

The period of violent suppression reached its climax in 1839. Following the death of Father Bachelot and reports of the “merciless cruelty” inflicted upon native converts, the French government decided that diplomatic persuasion had failed. Captain Cyrille Laplace, commanding the 52-gun French frigate L’Artemise, was dispatched to Honolulu with orders to protect French subjects and secure religious liberty by force if necessary.

The Laplace Manifesto

Upon his arrival on July 10, 1839, Laplace issued a bold manifesto to King Kamehameha III. He framed the persecution of Catholics as an insult to the King of France and demanded an immediate end to the “outrages.” Laplace issued five non-negotiable demands, backed by the threat of immediate war and the bombardment of Honolulu:

• Religious Equality: The Catholic worship must be declared free throughout the islands, enjoying the same privileges as Protestants.
• The Cathedral Grant: The King must provide a site in Honolulu for a Catholic church to be served by French priests.
• Release of Prisoners: All Catholics currently imprisoned or enslaved for their faith must be set free immediately.
• Financial Security: The King was required to deposit $20,000 (a staggering sum at the time) as a guarantee of future good behavior.
• Military Honors: The French flag was to be saluted with 21 guns by the Honolulu batteries.

The Signing of the Treaty

Faced with the overwhelming firepower of L’Artemise and the realization that his American advisors could not protect him from French cannons, King Kamehameha III signed the treaty on July 17, 1839. While the King had already issued a preliminary Edict of Toleration on June 17, the Laplace Treaty codified these rights under international law. It also included commercial clauses that benefited France, such as capping duties on French wine and brandy at 5%, a move heavily criticized by the Protestant mission as an infringement on Hawaiian temperance laws.

The Liberation of the “Final Nine”

The most immediate and emotional impact of the intervention was the release of the native converts still held in penal servitude. Nine Hawaiians—five men and four women—who had been enslaved at the Honolulu Fort and forced to perform brutal labor while nearly naked and exposed to the elements, were unconditionally freed. Among them was Kimeone Pale, who was famously released from his chains as a direct result of the French intervention. Their liberation marked the functional end of the “Persecution.”

Legacy: The Birth of Pluralism

While critics in the Sandwich Island Gazette viewed Laplace’s actions as “tyrannical” and a violation of Hawaiian sovereignty, the intervention successfully established the legal foundation for religious pluralism in Hawaii. The land restored to the mission would eventually house the Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, built from the very coral stone native converts had once been forced to harvest as punishment. The “clash of the missions” had finally ended, not with the total victory of one sect, but with a forced peace that allowed multiple faiths to reside in the kingdom.

Epilogue: The Record of the Mirror

In January 1840, the Supplement to the Sandwich Islands Mirror was published in Honolulu. It served as a final historical accounting, containing the detailed testimonies and woodcuts of the native victims. This document ensured that the names of Luika Kaumaka, Anolo Riko, and Juliana Makuwahine would be preserved as the true founders of the Catholic faith in the Sandwich Islands—not through the power of the crown, but through the resilience of their own spirit.

Conclusion: The Legacy of 1839

On July 17, 1839, the King signed the treaty. The immediate result was the release of nine native Hawaiians still held in slavery for their faith. While the intervention was a violation of Hawaiian sovereignty, it established the legal foundation for religious pluralism in the islands.

Economic Context of the Era (Nov 1837)

Chronological Timeline: The Persecution (1819–1840)

The Planting (1819–1828)

• 1819: Baptism of Governor Boki and Prime Minister Kalaimoku aboard the French ship Uranie.
• 1826: John Rives recruits missionaries; Rev. Alexis Bachelot is appointed Apostolic Prefect.
• July 7, 1827: Fathers Bachelot, Short, and Armand arrive in Honolulu aboard the Comet.
• July 13, 1827: The first Catholic Mass is celebrated on Hawaiian soil.
• April 1828: Protestant mission leaders (ABCFM) initiate a formal investigation into “Jesuit” activities.

The Suppression (1829–1836)

• December 1829: Governor Boki disappears at sea; Queen Kaʻahumanu assumes control.
• January 1830: Brutal persecution of native converts begins; Luika Kaumaka is starved; Valeriano Hinapapa and Kimeone Pale are beaten.
• 1830–1831: Mass sentencing of Catholics to penal labor at the Waikiki Coral Wall.
• December 24, 1831: Bachelot and Short are forcibly placed on the brig Waverly for exile.
• January 1832: Priests are abandoned on the California coast at San Pedro.
• 1832–1836: Native population drops by ~27,000 due to epidemics and hardship.

The Crisis (1837–1838)

• April 1837: Bachelot and Short return on the Clementine; King Kamehameha III declares the mission “hostile.”
• July 1837: British and French naval intervention (Sulphur and La Venus) forces the priests’ temporary landing.
• November 23, 1837: Father Bachelot is forced onto the schooner Honolulu for a second expulsion.
• December 3, 1837: Death of Father Alexis Bachelot at sea near Ascension Island.
• December 18, 1837: The King issues the formal “Ordinance Rejecting the Catholic Religion.”

The Restoration (1839–1840)

• June 17, 1839: Under diplomatic pressure, the King issues the Edict of Toleration.
• July 9, 1839: Captain Laplace arrives on the frigate L’Artemise and issues his manifesto.
• July 17, 1839: The Laplace Treaty is signed; nine native Catholics are released from slavery.
• January 15, 1840: Publication of the Supplement to the Sandwich Islands Mirror, documenting the decade of abuse.

Fact Sheet: Key Data and Figures

The Toll of the “Persecution”

• Total Deaths: While no definitive total exists, notable deaths include Alexis Bachelot, Alokia Keluhoonani, and Luahina.
• Epidemic context: Approximately 32,000 Hawaiians died of disease (measles, mumps, whooping cough) during this same period.
• Penal Labor: The standard sentence for native Catholics was 18 months of carrying coral stones or cutting stone on the reef.

Economic & Political Impact

• The French Bond: $20,000—a massive sum deposited by the King as a guarantee of future good behavior.
• Trade Mandate: Import duties on French wine and brandy were capped at 5%, weakening Hawaiian temperance laws.
• Port Statistics (1837): Honolulu was dominated by American Whalers (approx. 2,000 barrels of oil each); British and French presence was minimal by comparison.

Key Geographic Sites

• The Honolulu Fort (Kekuanāoa): The primary site of imprisonment and chaining.
• The Waikiki Wall: A multi-mile construction project served by native Catholic penal laborers.
• Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace: Built on Bishop Street using the very coral blocks harvested during the persecution

Chronological Table of Documented Victims

The following names appear consistently across the primary sources listed above (particularly Yzendoorn and the Sandwich Island Mirror Supplement).

Letter from Father Bachelot

Mission of St. Gabriel, Upper California December 18, 1835

I now provide details of our expulsion from the Sandwich Islands, which were never before published, so that the full measure of our trial and perseverance may be understood.

On April 12, 1831, Mr. Patrick Short and I were summoned before the principal chiefs, both men and women, who had assembled in a tent atop a rampart. In the absence of the young King, who refused to attend, the old Queen, Kaahumanu, presided. Among those present were some “kumu,” or schoolmasters, trained by the Methodists, as well as numerous curious natives and strangers. Kanai, chief of the island and governor to the King, handed me a letter from the King and principal chiefs declaring that we were not welcome and must immediately leave the islands. The letter threatened confiscation of our property and imprisonment should we remain beyond a specified period. Every eye was fixed upon me as I read it, and I felt the need of divine support in that moment of trial.

I could not abandon the mission. In response to repeated requests for permission to remain, I argued that our religion should not be condemned by those ignorant of it. I defended our practices and explained the significance of the crucifix, likening it to their veneration of portraits of deceased kings—not as objects of worship, but as symbols of reverence. Similarly, I showed that we encouraged reading among our converts, refuting charges to the contrary.

The Queen remained silent for much of this conference, while the chiefs listened attentively, calm and impartial. Many of the natives and visiting strangers openly supported us. Though threatened with confiscation and imprisonment, I declared that I feared neither, for our mission belonged to God, not to this world. Kuakini, the Queen’s brother and Governor of Hawaii, was eventually tasked with executing the expulsion. He cited Protestant accusations of idolatry and image worship, which I carefully refuted, explaining our religious symbols and practices in a manner they could understand. He also accused us of receiving large sums from France, which I denied, emphasizing that our mission was spiritual, not material.

Regarding the progress of religion, the world can judge whether Catholics hinder it. Is it opposition to the Gospel that drives Catholic priests in China, Cochinchina, and other lands to brave persecution and even death? You accuse us of obstructing the spread of the Gospel. If by this you mean selling translated passages of Scripture to those who cannot understand them, I plead guilty—but the Catholic Church forbids using the sacred text for profit. We are taught to study and meditate upon the Scriptures and to explain their deeper truths, not to commodify them.

You argue that our efforts are useless because the propagation of the Gospel is God’s work, against which the gates of hell will not prevail. Yet the promises in Scripture are made to the Church founded on Peter, which alone preserves the truth and doctrine unchanged through the centuries. To call this Church a “sect” is absurd. You advise that we “not kick against the goad.” If by this you mean human opposition, I reply with St. Peter and St. John: is it right to obey men rather than God? The hireling flees at danger, but the true shepherd lays down his life for the flock. You propose that we leave the islands to avoid opposition, suggesting a field of action elsewhere. But a missionary cannot choose his mission; it must be assigned by the Church, which alone holds authority from the Apostles. We cannot abandon the flock to which we are sent.

Attempts were made to secure our passage home. A Prussian vessel offered a means of escape, but only on condition of a payment of 5,000 piastres—a sum far beyond our means. Meanwhile, an Englishman, Mr. Hill, claiming to represent the government, persuaded some to support our removal, though he was actually an agent of the London Biblical Society. After receiving our letter, Mr. Hill—whose haughty tone had previously sought to influence us—paid an apparently friendly visit but soon resumed discussion of our removal. I firmly replied that as a Frenchman, I could not be forced onto any vessel except one bearing the French flag or that of my residence. This ended the discussion.

Preparations for our departure were then made by the chiefs. A Sandwich vessel, Wawerlai (Waverly), was engaged. Though warned of the task’s disgrace, an English sailor, motivated by payment and fear of offending the chiefs, accepted the commission. Kanoa, a chief married to our adversary Kinao, informed us that a vessel had been procured. We sought protection from the English consul and formally protested our impending expulsion, invoking the law of nations. At one point, the chiefs considered leaving us on a desert island, Santa Cruz, formerly used for convicts. To document the injustice, we requested both consuls certify that our expulsion was solely due to our status as Catholic missionaries. They did so under their own hands and seals.

On December 23, a large crowd gathered outside our residence. An inferior chief, arriving with two handcarts, announced: “I have come for your trunks.” I replied calmly: “If you are ordered to take them, you may do so; but do not expect me to hand them over willingly.” Judging my tone, he withdrew quietly. The next day, December 24, we celebrated Mass for what we believed was the last time at Oahu. Around nine o’clock, the chief arrived to inform us the moment had come. “You intend then to send us away by force?” I asked. “Yes,” he replied, gripping my shoulder.

We took our breviaries, hats, and walking sticks, and made our way to the shore. The procession was flanked by guides, and crowds of men, women, and children, many sympathetic, thronged the streets. We saw our converts among them, but prudence forbade speech; we could only exchange looks of encouragement and consolation. After half an hour, our trunks arrived, and the vessel set sail. The captain personally expressed regret for our expulsion and censured Kaahumanu, the chiefs, and particularly the Protestant ministers. As we sailed, the shore remained crowded with spectators. We kept our gaze on the house where we had lived.

After several days, we lost sight of land. Rumors of the island of Santa Cruz alarmed us, but observing the ship’s course, we were relieved to see we were heading toward California. On January 21, 1832, we reached a farm about three leagues off. The next day, the farmer returned to the vessel, instructing us that landing without official permission could bring serious difficulties. We informed him that we were “prisoners” under the captain’s care. He provided us with milk and water, and we made temporary beds from our trunks near an uninhabited house. Though anxious about wild animals—bears and snakes—our spirits were bolstered by the herdsmen who stayed with us overnight.

By January 22, our vessel had disappeared. Two men questioned us about our belongings, and I explained that we were captives of the captain, unaware of his intentions. The vessel had indeed gone on to Santa Barbara, where the captain’s boat was seized and he was briefly imprisoned. On January 24, the farmer arrived with provisions and a letter from the clergyman of the mission of St. Gabriel, expressing the desire to receive us. We arrived at the mission the following day, welcomed by ringing bells and warm greetings. At last, we had a house to call our own.

I am now responsible for over two thousand souls across a district thirty leagues wide. Travel across this new territory is arduous, often thirty leagues in a day on foot or horseback. Mr. Short, meanwhile, has been placed by the government over the first local college. Despite political complications, we aim to do what good we can and leave the rest to God. Although circumstances prevent immediate support for my former mission, I intend to return at the earliest opportunity.

Alexis Bachelot, Prefect Apostolic

1. Primary Archival Records & Contemporary Journals

These documents were written during or immediately after the events described and provide the raw data for historical analysis.

• Bachelot, Alexis John Augustine. “Narrative of the Expulsion of the Catholic Missionaries from the Sandwich Islands.” Originally published in Les Annales de la Propagation de la Foi (Annals of the Propagation of the Faith). Lyons, France, 1835–1840.
  • Significance: This is the essential firsthand account from the mission’s leader, providing names of converts and details of his exile.
• Howard, R.J. (Editor). “Supplement to the Sandwich Island Mirror: Containing an Account of the Persecution of Catholics at the Sandwich Islands.” Honolulu: January 15, 1840.
  • Significance: A critical local primary source identifying specific native victims (like Luika Kaumaka and Anolo Riko) and detailing their treatment. It was printed as a direct rebuttal to Protestant claims.
• Laplace, Cyrille P.T. “Manifesto and Treaty of the French Frigate L’Artemise.” Issued at Honolulu, July 10, 1839.
  • Significance: The formal diplomatic and military record that used “gunboat diplomacy” to force the end of the persecution.
• Reynolds, Jeremiah N. “Voyage of the United States Frigate Potomac, Under the Command of Commodore John Downes, During the Circumnavigation of the Globe, in the Years 1831, 1832, 1833, and 1834.” New York: Harper & Brothers, 1835.
  • Significance: Provides a secular, non-missionary perspective on the native Catholics performing hard labor on the Waikiki coral wall.

1. Major Secondary Scholarly Sources

These peer-reviewed histories consolidated the names of victims and verified primary accounts through cross-referencing mission and government archives.

• Yzendoorn, Reginald. History of the Catholic Mission in the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1927.
  • Significance: Written by a Sacred Hearts priest, this is considered the definitive academic history of the mission. It meticulously cross-references mission archives with Hawaiian government records.
• Kuykendall, Ralph S. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Vol. 1: 1778–1854: Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1938.
  • Significance: The foundational text for Hawaiian political history. Kuykendall provides a neutral academic perspective on the friction between the Catholic mission, the ABCFM (Protestants), and the monarchy.
• Daws, Gavan. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968.
  • Significance: Provides a broader sociological context for the “clash of cultures” and the specific role of sectarian influence in the persecution.
• Mulholland, John F. Hawaii’s Religions. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1970.
  • Significance: Offers a concise overview of how these early conflicts shaped the modern religious pluralism of the islands.

III. Legal and Royal Proclamations

To understand the justification of sovereignty versus religious liberty, these legal instruments are vital:

• Kamehameha III. “Proclamation Regarding the Banishment of Catholic Missionaries.” April 29, 1837.
  • Core Argument: Stated that the Catholic mission was “hostile to the kingdom.”
• Kamehameha III. “Ordinance Rejecting the Catholic Religion.” December 18, 1837.
  • Core Argument: Formalized the prohibition of teaching Catholic doctrines and penalized vessels bringing priests.
• Kamehameha III. “Edict of Toleration.” June 17, 1839.
  • Significance: The royal proclamation that officially ended physical persecution, issued just weeks before the arrival of Captain Laplace.

1. Visual and Physical Records

• Archives of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts (SS.CC.): The religious order to which Bachelot belonged maintains original journals and baptismal records in Rome and Hawaii.
• The Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace (Honolulu): The physical building serves as a primary source; it was built on land granted as “reparation” following the 1839 intervention.
• The 1840 Woodcuts: Found in the Sandwich Islands Mirror, these depict the humilitation of native converts, such as Juliana Makuwahine lashed to a tree.

The Manifesto of Captain C. Laplace (July 10, 1839)

The Preamble: Laplace began by stating that he was sent by the King of the French to end, “either by persuasion or by force,” the ill-treatment to which French subjects had been subjected. He specifically blamed “perfidious counselors” (referring to the American Protestant missionaries) for misleading the Hawaiian chiefs and lulling them into a false sense of security regarding France’s indulgence.

The Five Demands (The Ultimatum): Laplace declared that peace between France and the Sandwich Islands would only be maintained if the King agreed to the following five articles immediately:

1. Freedom of Worship: That Catholic worship be declared free throughout all the dominions subject to the King of the Sandwich Islands; that the members of this religious faith shall enjoy in them all the privileges granted to Protestants.
2. Land for a Church: That a site for a Catholic church be given by the Government at Honolulu, a port frequented by the French, and that this church be ministered by priests of their nation (France).
3. Release of Prisoners: That all Catholics who may have been imprisoned on account of their religion since the last persecutions shall be immediately set at liberty.
4. The Financial Bond: That the King of the Sandwich Islands shall deposit in the hands of the Captain of L’Artemise the sum of twenty thousand dollars ($20,000) as a guarantee of his future conduct towards the Government of France; which sum the Government will restore the moment it shall consider that the accompanying treaty will be faithfully accompanied and fulfilled.
5. Military Honors: That the treaty signed by the King of the Sandwich Islands shall be delivered to the Captain of L’Artemise by one of the principal chiefs of the country, and that at the same time the French flag shall be saluted by a battery of twenty-one guns.

The Consequences of Refusal

Laplace concluded the manifesto with a direct threat of war:

“If the King and the chiefs, who are the principal counselors of the country, refuse to sign the treaty which I present, war will immediately commence, and all the devastations and all the calamities which may be the unhappy but necessary results of it will be considered as the result of their own blindness, and they shall also be responsible for the losses that the subjects of his Majesty the King of the French may suffer.”

The persecution of Catholics in Hawaii during the “Dark Decade” (1829–1839) was marked by systemic abuse, penal servitude, and physical torture. While European priests were exiled, Native Hawaiian converts bore the brunt of the kingdom’s efforts to enforce Protestant religious conformity.

Below are the documented individuals and the specific details of their persecution.

The Persecuted

1. Primary Witnesses and Leaders

These individuals were frequently singled out for severe punishment to coerce them into renouncing their faith.

• Luika Kaumaka: A native woman baptized in California. She was a primary target for Queen Kaʻahumanu. She was taken to Maui and held for seven days without food. This was followed by nine weeks of grueling menial servitude. Despite abusive confrontations with Rev. Hiram Bingham, who told her she would go to “perdition,” she never recanted.
• Valeriano Hinapapa: A prominent convert who was summoned before an inquisitorial tribunal. He was brutally beaten with sticks for refusing to renounce his Catholicism and remained a steadfast figure in the clandestine community.
• Kimeone (Simeone) Pale: In January 1830, while in the act of prayer, he was dragged from the altar by armed ruffians. He was sentenced to reef labor and was famously released from his chains by Captain Laplace in 1839.
• Helio Koaʻeloa: Known as the “Apostle of Maui,” he converted thousands. He and his followers were arrested in Kahikinui, bound two by two with a single rope, and forced to march 90 miles across the coast to Wailuku and Lahaina with minimal food.

1. The Laborers of the Waikiki Coral Wall

Sentence to hard labor on the Waikiki coral wall was the standard punishment for “Popery.” Converts were forced to pry jagged coral from the reef and carry stones miles inland under the sun.

• Anolo Riko (Kiuawahine): Noted for his gentle disposition, he was seized and loaded with heavy irons in the Honolulu Fort for three months. During his imprisonment, he was kicked, spit upon, and abused by guards before serving 18 months of hard labor carrying stones.
• Itakelio Luakini & Pelpe Kanmoku: Both men served full 18-month sentences on the Waikiki wall detail under the same brutal conditions as Anolo Riko.
• Maria Ana Kamakaia (Kamokaia): The wife of Kimeone Pale. She was sentenced to make fifteen massive mats (six fathoms by five) while in captivity and was frequently chained to her husband during public labor.

III. Casualties and Martyrs

The conditions of penal servitude resulted in several deaths directly linked to exhaustion and deprivation.

• Alokia Keluhoonani: A native woman condemned to reef labor and building the Waikiki wall. She died shortly after her release; her death was attributed to illness and physical exhaustion caused by the “merciless cruelty” of her treatment.
• Luahina: He was part of a mass round-up of 67 natives on September 15, 1839. He died en route to the Fort, succumbing to the physical stress of the arrest.
• The Unnamed Infant: A native woman who was ill during her mat-weaving imprisonment had her child with her in the cell. The infant died shortly after their release due to the deprivation suffered by the mother.

1. Summary of Group Sentences (March 1830)

A significant group was arraigned before the Regent Kīnaʻu and sentenced collectively:

Based on Father Reginald Yzendoorn’s “History of the Catholic Mission in the Hawaiian Islands” (1927), there is no single, “official” government total for the number of Hawaiians persecuted. Because many were harassed or threatened in private or in remote villages, a definitive census of victims does not exist.

However, Yzendoorn meticulously cross-references Father Alexis Bachelot’s journals and the Supplement to the Sandwich Islands Mirror to provide specific numbers for the major waves of state-sanctioned persecution between 1829 and 1839.

Here is the breakdown of the numbers Yzendoorn identifies:

1. The Documented Waves of Arrest

Yzendoorn tracks the persecution through specific legal “arraignments” conducted by the Hawaiian chiefs:

• January 1830: A small group of primary leaders was singled out for torture and starvation (notably Luika Kaumaka, Valeriano Hinapapa, and Kimeone Pale).
• March 1830: A group of at least 10 named individuals (5 men and 5 women) were formally sentenced to reef labor and mat-making.
• The Waikiki Wall Detail: Yzendoorn cites reports from the U.S. frigate Potomac stating that “some forty native men, women, and children” were found at one time performing hard labor on the coral wall specifically as punishment for being Catholic.
• September 15, 1839: In one of the final documented round-ups, 67 natives were arrested and forced to march to the Fort in Honolulu for practicing Catholicism.
• The “Final Nine”: When Captain Laplace arrived in July 1839, he found 9 natives (5 men and 4 women) still being held in a state of virtual slavery at the Fort.

2. Documented Deaths (Martyrs)

While the persecution was characterized more by “penal servitude” than execution, Yzendoorn identifies individuals whose deaths were directly attributed to the abuse:

• Alokia Keluhoonani: Died shortly after release from the Waikiki wall detail due to fatal exhaustion.
• Luahina: Died on September 15, 1839, while being rounded up during a mass arrest.
• An Unnamed Infant: The child of a woman imprisoned for mat-weaving who died shortly after release due to the mother’s deprivation.

3. The “Clandestine” Community

Yzendoorn notes that by 1839, the Catholic community had grown to roughly 11,000 “neophytes” (converts). While not all 11,000 were in chains, Yzendoorn argues that the entire community lived under a “reign of terror” where:

• Statues and crucifixes were seized.
• Children were prohibited from Catholic instruction.
• Converts were denied the right to marry or hold land.

Summary

If you add the specific groups documented in Yzendoorn’s research, there are approximately 120 to 150 individuals who are documented by name or group-count as having suffered physical torture, imprisonment, or forced labor. However, Yzendoorn concludes that these were merely the documented examples of a much broader systemic effort to eliminate the “French religion” from the islands.

Based on the letters and journals of Father Alexis Bachelot (Apostolic Prefect), as well as contemporary records like the Supplement to the Sandwich Islands Mirror which drew directly from his accounts, the following individuals are identified as having been persecuted or having died during the “Dark Decade” (1829–1839).

1. The Clergy (Missionaries)

• Father Alexis Bachelot: * Persecution: Subjected to two forced exiles (1831 and 1837), imprisoned aboard the ship Clementine for weeks without being allowed to land, and subjected to years of travel-related stress.
  • Fate: DIED at sea on December 3, 1837, due to physical decline caused by his mistreatment.
• Father Patrick Short: * Persecution: Forcibly exiled to California in 1831; imprisoned aboard the Clementine upon his return in 1837.
• Father Louis Maigret: * Persecution: Denied the right to set foot on Oahu in 1837; forced into a second exile on a poorly equipped schooner alongside the dying Father Bachelot.

2. Native Hawaiian Converts Who Died (Martyrs)

Bachelot and mission records identify these deaths as direct consequences of state-sanctioned abuse:

• Alokia Keluhoonani: * Persecution: Condemned to hard labor on the reef and the Waikiki wall.
  • Fate: DIED shortly after her release due to physical exhaustion and illness worsened by her time in chains.
• Luahina: * Persecution: Rounded up during a mass arrest of 67 Catholics.
  • Fate: DIED on September 15, 1839, while in transit to the Fort, succumbing to the stress of the round-up.
• Unnamed Infant of a Mat-Weaver: * Persecution: The mother was one of six women imprisoned and forced to weave massive mats.
  • Fate: DIED shortly after release due to the mother’s lack of food and the conditions of their imprisonment.
• Unnamed Infant of the Waikiki Wall: * Persecution: Carried on its mother’s back while she lifted heavy coral stones.
  • Fate: Records indicate the child DIED from exposure and the excessive strain placed on the mother.

3. Native Hawaiians Subjected to Torture and Hard Labor

These individuals were frequently named in Bachelot’s letters for their steadfastness under duress:

• Luika Kaumaka: Taken to Maui by Queen Kaʻahumanu; starved for seven days and forced into nine weeks of menial servitude to compel her to recant.
• Valeriano Hinapapa: Arraigned before a tribunal and brutally beaten with sticks for refusing to renounce his faith.
• Anolo Riko (Kihawahine): Seized and loaded with heavy irons; confined in the Honolulu Fort for three months (where he was kicked and spit upon) before serving 18 months carrying stones for the Waikiki wall.
• Kimeone (Simeone) Pale: Dragged from the altar during Mass; chained and forced to cut coral stone on the reef for six weeks.
• Maria Ana Kamakaia: Wife of Kimeone Pale; chained to her husband and forced into public labor carrying wood and stones.
• Itakelio Luakini: Condemned to 18 months of stone-carrying labor at the Waikiki wall.
• Pelpe Kanmoku: Condemned to 18 months of stone-carrying labor at the Waikiki wall.
• Juliana Makuwahine: Publicly humiliated and lashed to a tree on June 25, 1839, for her refusal to recant.

4. Groups Named in Arraignments (March 1830)

Father Bachelot recorded a specific group of ten natives sentenced together by the Regent Kīnaʻu:

The Men (Sentenced to Reef Labor):

• Pacome Kaihumua
• Ikanakio Kamaka
• Kiipueoe
• Mamaua Kamalolo
• Malahu

The Women (Sentenced to Mat Making):

• Amelia Maloikon
• Kekela Miakaiehua
• Okilia Pahana
• Alukia Kaukalu
• Alokia Keluhoonani (Note: listed above as a fatality)

Summary of Tactics Mentioned in Letters

Father Bachelot specifically identifies the following “Inquisitorial” methods used against these people:

1. Chaining: Often in pairs (husband to wife) or in heavy leg irons.
2. Starvation: Used as a primary tool to force native women to recant.
3. Deprivation: Natives were often forced to labor naked and exposed to the sun and rain.
4. Menial/Public Humiliation: Forcing high-ranking or respected converts to perform the dirtiest tasks of the kingdom (scavenging for wood or making mud bricks).

Based on the research provided, Father Patrick Short—who was a British subject and one of the original Catholic missionaries—documented both his own suffering and the brutal treatment of the native Hawaiian converts.

According to the petitions and historical records involving Father Short (specifically his May 26, 1837 petition to the British Consul and his accounts of the 1831 banishment), the following individuals were identified as being persecuted:

1. The Catholic Clergy (Including Himself)

Father Short identified himself and his fellow priests as primary targets of the government’s exclusionary policies:

• Father Patrick Short: He reported being “forcibly confined aboard the brig (Clementine), threatened by armed men, and prevented from setting foot on land” despite being a British subject with treaty rights. He was also forcibly exiled in 1831.
• Father Alexis Bachelot: Short’s constant companion. Short witnessed Bachelot’s imprisonment on the Clementine and his forced departure on the schooner Honolulu, which led to Bachelot’s death at sea.
• Father Louis Maigret: Denied landing in 1837 and forced into exile.

2. Native Hawaiian “Witnesses and Leaders”

Father Short, alongside Bachelot, recorded the names of those Native Hawaiians who were singled out for refusing to recant their faith:

• Luika Kaumaka: Documented as being taken to Maui, held for seven days without food, and forced into menial servitude.
• Valeriano Hinapapa: Identified as being summoned before an inquisitorial tribunal and brutally beaten with a stick for refusing to renounce Catholicism.
• Kimeone (Simeone) Pale: Short witnessed or recorded Pale being dragged from the altar while praying during a raid on the mission and subsequently chained for coral-cutting labor.
• Maria Ana Kamakaia: The wife of Kimeone Pale, who was chained to her husband and forced into public hard labor.

3. The Waikiki Coral Wall Detail (1830–1839)

Father Short’s records align with the accounts of the U.S.S. Potomac, identifying a group of converts forced into 18 months of penal servitude carrying heavy stones:

• Anolo Riko (Kihawahine): Described as a man of exemplary conduct who was heavily ironed for three months before being sent to the wall.
• Itakelio Luakini: A male convert forced into the stone-carrying detail.
• Pelpe Kanmoku: Condemned to 18 months of hard labor solely for being Catholic.
• Unnamed Mothers: Short’s accounts support the evidence of women carrying infants on their backs while bearing large stones as punishment.

4. The Martyrs (Casualties of the “Dark Decade”)

Father Short’s history of the mission (later synthesized by Father Yzendoorn) identifies those who died due to the severity of their persecution:

• Alokia Keluhoonani: A native woman who died shortly after being released from hard labor due to exhaustion and illness.
• Luahina: A man who died on September 15, 1839, while being rounded up with 67 other natives for practicing their faith.
• The Unnamed Infant: The child of an ill woman forced to weave mats, who died shortly after their release from the strain and deprivation of the mother’s imprisonment.

Summary of Father Short’s Perspective

Father Short’s unique contribute

on to these records often focused on the legal and diplomatic violations of the persecution. As a British subject, he highlighted that the Hawaiian government—under the influence of “sectarian” (Protestant) advisors—was violating international law and the “law of nations” by using armed force against peaceful residents and religious minorities.